Expert Consensus on Characteristics of Wisdom: A Delphi Method Study
Expert Consensus on Characteristics of Wisdom: A Delphi Method Study
Purpose: Wisdom has received increasing attention in empirical research in recent years, especially in gerontology and psychology, but consistent definitions of wisdom remain elusive. We sought to better characterize this concept via an expert consensus panel using a 2-phase Delphi method.
Design and Methods: A survey questionnaire comprised 53 Likert scale statements related to the concepts of wisdom, intelligence, and spirituality was developed to determine if and how wisdom was viewed as being distinct from the latter 2 concepts. Of the 57 international wisdom experts contacted by e-mail, 30 completed the Phase 1 survey and 27 also completed the Phase 2 survey.
Results: In Phase 1, there were significant group differences among the concepts of wisdom, intelligence, and spirituality on 49 of the 53 items rated by the experts. Wisdom differed from intelligence on 46 of these 49 items, whereas wisdom differed from spirituality on 31 items. In Phase 2, we sought to define wisdom further by selecting 12 items based on Phase 1 results. Most experts agreed on many of the suggested characteristics of wisdom—that is, it is uniquely human; a form of advanced cognitive and emotional development that is experience driven; and a personal quality, albeit a rare one, which can be learned, increases with age, can be measured, and is not likely to be enhanced by taking medication.
Implications: There was considerable agreement among the expert participants on wisdom being a distinct entity and a number of its characteristic qualities. These data should help in designing additional empirical research on wisdom.
The concept of wisdom is ancient (Birren & Svensson, 2005; Jeste & Vahia, 2008; Takahashi & Overton, 2005), although interest in empirical research on this entity has only been recent (Sternberg & Jordan, 2005). The number of articles on wisdom found in a PubMed database search using the keyword "wisdom" increased sevenfold from the 1970s through 2008 (Meeks & Jeste, 2009). Yet, there is no single consensus definition of wisdom, despite a number of multifaceted descriptions and several rating scales for assessing wisdom (Ardelt, 2003; Brown & Greene, 2008; Brugman, 2000; Jason et al., 2001; Levenson, Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005; Takahashi & Overton, 2002; Webster, 2003, 2007; Wink & Helson, 1997).
There are several major definitions of wisdom. The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000) defined wisdom as expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life that permits exceptional insight, judgment, and advice about complex and uncertain matters and expertise in the conduct and meaning of life. Sternberg's (1990) balance theory focused on wisdom as application of tacit knowledge as mediated by values toward achievement of a common good through a balance among multiple interpersonal, intrapersonal, and extrapersonal interests in order to achieve a balance among adaptation to existing environments, shaping of existing environments, and selection of new environments. The epistemic theory (Brugman, 2000, 2006) highlighted three key components of wisdom: meta-cognition (acknowledging uncertainty and ability for dialectical thinking), personality/affect (emotional stability despite uncertainty and openness to new experience), and behavior (ability to act in the face of uncertainty). Finally, Ardelt (2000, 2004) stressed three primary dimensions of wisdom: cognitive (ability to understand a situation thoroughly, knowing the positive and negative aspects of human nature, awareness of life's inherent uncertainty, yet ability to make decisions in spite of this), reflective (ability and willingness to examine phenomena from multiple perspectives and absence of projections/blaming others for one's own situation or feelings), and affective (positive emotion and behaviors with absence of indifferent or negative emotions toward others and remaining positive in the face of adversity). Meeks and Jeste (2009) identified six subcomponents of wisdom that were included in several of the published definitions: prosocial attitudes/behaviors, social decision making/pragmatic knowledge of life, emotional homeostasis, reflection/self-understanding, value relativism/tolerance, and acknowledgment of and dealing effectively with uncertainty/ambiguity.
Traditionally, wisdom has been associated with older age in most societies (Assmann, 1994; Baltes & Smith, 1990; Holiday & Chandler, 1986). Modern empirical research does not, however, consistently support a significant relationship between old age and wisdom (Brugman, 2006; Vaillant, 2002), possibly because wisdom is not a result of aging per se, but rather, only those older people who use their lifetime experiences optimally tend to acquire wisdom with aging. According to Erikson's (1959) theory of personality development, the final stage in late life involves resolving the psychosocial crisis between ego integrity and despair, with the desired outcome being attainment of wisdom. Baltes and colleagues (e.g., Baltes & Smith; Baltes, Smith, & Staudinger, 1992; Glück & Baltes, 2006) have proposed that wise older people are more likely to age successfully than older people without wisdom. Under optimal circumstances, aging would be associated with greater emotional balance, contentment with life, and a theosophical approach that corresponds to wisdom (Blazer, 2006; Jamuna, 2000). Carstensen, Mikels, and Mather (2006) have sought to integrate the domains of cognitive aging and socioemotional aging from the perspective of a motivational theory of life-span development, although they do not use the term wisdom.
It is essential for valid empirical research in wisdom that a consensus be developed regarding its main characteristics. Two constructs that share some features with wisdom are intelligence and spirituality. Jung and Haier (2007) reviewed neuroimaging studies relevant to human intelligence and reasoning and concluded that several distinct brain regions involved in "parietofrontal integration" contributed to intelligence/reasoning. Similarly, based on a literature overview focusing primarily on neuroimaging/brain localization of identified components of wisdom, Meeks and Jeste (2009) proposed a putative model of the neurobiology of wisdom comprised frontostriatal and frontolimbic circuits. There is thus a partial overlap in the brain regions implicated in intelligence/reasoning and wisdom. Nonetheless, there are also several important characteristics in which wisdom differs from intelligence—for example, wisdom (but not intelligence) may include domains such as practical application of knowledge, use of knowledge for common social good, and integration of affect and knowledge.
There is considerable literature on the relationship of spirituality and aging (Kimble, McFadden, Ellor, & Seeber, 1995). In general, religious and spiritual commitment provides meaning to life (Koenig, 2007; Pargament, Magyar-Russell, & Murray-Swank, 2005; Silberman, 2005; Wong, 1998), which is particularly important for emotional well-being in old age when people are faced with multiple losses, physical decline, and the nearing of death (Ardelt & Koenig, 2009; McFadden, 2000; Neill & Kahn, 1999). The role of spirituality in the construct of "successful aging" and mental health has been emphasized in recent years (Crowther, Parker, Achnebaum, Larimore, & Koenig, 2002). A few studies using biomarkers have supported an association between spirituality and successful health-related outcomes (Borg, Andree, Sorderstrom, & Farde, 2003; Ironson et al., 2002). An important caveat in studies of spirituality is that its definitions have been inconsistent (Blazer, 2007; Blazer & Meador, 2009). Jason et al. (2001) incorporated harmony and warmth as well as spiritual elements and mysticism in their definition of wisdom; however, the inclusion of spirituality in the definition of wisdom has been an exception rather than a rule. Most researchers have defined and operationalized wisdom in secular rather than spiritual terms (e.g., Ardelt, 2003; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000; Brugman, 2000; Sternberg, 1990; Sternberg & Jordan, 2005; Webster, 2003).
A widely used and accepted method for seeking consensus among experts within a certain topic area is the Delphi technique, developed at the RAND Corporation in the 1950s (Dalkey, 1969). It is based on the principle that forecasts from a structured group of experts are more accurate than those from unstructured groups or individuals. The Delphi method provides a well-defined process for collecting and examining group agreement on a topic. It facilitates anonymity (the participants' identity is not revealed even after the completion of the final report) and also allows geographical spread of the participants at low cost and in a timely manner (Becker & Roberts, 2009). Interactions among the participants are discouraged to avoid the common problems of group dynamics in face-to-face panel discussions including the "bandwagon effect" or "halo effect" (Dalkey). The selected experts answer questionnaires in two or more rounds. After each round, a facilitator distributes controlled feedback in the form of a well-organized summary without naming the specific experts (Dalkey; Hsu & Sanford, 2007). Participants are free to revise their earlier answers in light of the averaged replies of other members of the group. Finally, appropriate statistical analyses are employed to allow for an objective and impartial analysis and summary of the collected data (Hsu & Sanford), while also ensuring that opinions generated by each participant are well represented in the final iteration (Dalkey).
The goal of the present two-phase study was, in Phase 1, to compare experts' Likert-type ratings on a number of items pertaining to the concepts of wisdom, intelligence, and spirituality to determine if and how wisdom was viewed as being distinct from the latter two concepts and, next, in Phase 2, to characterize wisdom further by using specific descriptors derived from Phase 1. We hypothesized that components of wisdom would differ significantly from those of intelligence and spirituality, consistent with the notion that wisdom is a distinct entity.
Abstract and Introduction
Abstract
Purpose: Wisdom has received increasing attention in empirical research in recent years, especially in gerontology and psychology, but consistent definitions of wisdom remain elusive. We sought to better characterize this concept via an expert consensus panel using a 2-phase Delphi method.
Design and Methods: A survey questionnaire comprised 53 Likert scale statements related to the concepts of wisdom, intelligence, and spirituality was developed to determine if and how wisdom was viewed as being distinct from the latter 2 concepts. Of the 57 international wisdom experts contacted by e-mail, 30 completed the Phase 1 survey and 27 also completed the Phase 2 survey.
Results: In Phase 1, there were significant group differences among the concepts of wisdom, intelligence, and spirituality on 49 of the 53 items rated by the experts. Wisdom differed from intelligence on 46 of these 49 items, whereas wisdom differed from spirituality on 31 items. In Phase 2, we sought to define wisdom further by selecting 12 items based on Phase 1 results. Most experts agreed on many of the suggested characteristics of wisdom—that is, it is uniquely human; a form of advanced cognitive and emotional development that is experience driven; and a personal quality, albeit a rare one, which can be learned, increases with age, can be measured, and is not likely to be enhanced by taking medication.
Implications: There was considerable agreement among the expert participants on wisdom being a distinct entity and a number of its characteristic qualities. These data should help in designing additional empirical research on wisdom.
Introduction
The concept of wisdom is ancient (Birren & Svensson, 2005; Jeste & Vahia, 2008; Takahashi & Overton, 2005), although interest in empirical research on this entity has only been recent (Sternberg & Jordan, 2005). The number of articles on wisdom found in a PubMed database search using the keyword "wisdom" increased sevenfold from the 1970s through 2008 (Meeks & Jeste, 2009). Yet, there is no single consensus definition of wisdom, despite a number of multifaceted descriptions and several rating scales for assessing wisdom (Ardelt, 2003; Brown & Greene, 2008; Brugman, 2000; Jason et al., 2001; Levenson, Jennings, Aldwin, & Shiraishi, 2005; Takahashi & Overton, 2002; Webster, 2003, 2007; Wink & Helson, 1997).
There are several major definitions of wisdom. The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000) defined wisdom as expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life that permits exceptional insight, judgment, and advice about complex and uncertain matters and expertise in the conduct and meaning of life. Sternberg's (1990) balance theory focused on wisdom as application of tacit knowledge as mediated by values toward achievement of a common good through a balance among multiple interpersonal, intrapersonal, and extrapersonal interests in order to achieve a balance among adaptation to existing environments, shaping of existing environments, and selection of new environments. The epistemic theory (Brugman, 2000, 2006) highlighted three key components of wisdom: meta-cognition (acknowledging uncertainty and ability for dialectical thinking), personality/affect (emotional stability despite uncertainty and openness to new experience), and behavior (ability to act in the face of uncertainty). Finally, Ardelt (2000, 2004) stressed three primary dimensions of wisdom: cognitive (ability to understand a situation thoroughly, knowing the positive and negative aspects of human nature, awareness of life's inherent uncertainty, yet ability to make decisions in spite of this), reflective (ability and willingness to examine phenomena from multiple perspectives and absence of projections/blaming others for one's own situation or feelings), and affective (positive emotion and behaviors with absence of indifferent or negative emotions toward others and remaining positive in the face of adversity). Meeks and Jeste (2009) identified six subcomponents of wisdom that were included in several of the published definitions: prosocial attitudes/behaviors, social decision making/pragmatic knowledge of life, emotional homeostasis, reflection/self-understanding, value relativism/tolerance, and acknowledgment of and dealing effectively with uncertainty/ambiguity.
Traditionally, wisdom has been associated with older age in most societies (Assmann, 1994; Baltes & Smith, 1990; Holiday & Chandler, 1986). Modern empirical research does not, however, consistently support a significant relationship between old age and wisdom (Brugman, 2006; Vaillant, 2002), possibly because wisdom is not a result of aging per se, but rather, only those older people who use their lifetime experiences optimally tend to acquire wisdom with aging. According to Erikson's (1959) theory of personality development, the final stage in late life involves resolving the psychosocial crisis between ego integrity and despair, with the desired outcome being attainment of wisdom. Baltes and colleagues (e.g., Baltes & Smith; Baltes, Smith, & Staudinger, 1992; Glück & Baltes, 2006) have proposed that wise older people are more likely to age successfully than older people without wisdom. Under optimal circumstances, aging would be associated with greater emotional balance, contentment with life, and a theosophical approach that corresponds to wisdom (Blazer, 2006; Jamuna, 2000). Carstensen, Mikels, and Mather (2006) have sought to integrate the domains of cognitive aging and socioemotional aging from the perspective of a motivational theory of life-span development, although they do not use the term wisdom.
It is essential for valid empirical research in wisdom that a consensus be developed regarding its main characteristics. Two constructs that share some features with wisdom are intelligence and spirituality. Jung and Haier (2007) reviewed neuroimaging studies relevant to human intelligence and reasoning and concluded that several distinct brain regions involved in "parietofrontal integration" contributed to intelligence/reasoning. Similarly, based on a literature overview focusing primarily on neuroimaging/brain localization of identified components of wisdom, Meeks and Jeste (2009) proposed a putative model of the neurobiology of wisdom comprised frontostriatal and frontolimbic circuits. There is thus a partial overlap in the brain regions implicated in intelligence/reasoning and wisdom. Nonetheless, there are also several important characteristics in which wisdom differs from intelligence—for example, wisdom (but not intelligence) may include domains such as practical application of knowledge, use of knowledge for common social good, and integration of affect and knowledge.
There is considerable literature on the relationship of spirituality and aging (Kimble, McFadden, Ellor, & Seeber, 1995). In general, religious and spiritual commitment provides meaning to life (Koenig, 2007; Pargament, Magyar-Russell, & Murray-Swank, 2005; Silberman, 2005; Wong, 1998), which is particularly important for emotional well-being in old age when people are faced with multiple losses, physical decline, and the nearing of death (Ardelt & Koenig, 2009; McFadden, 2000; Neill & Kahn, 1999). The role of spirituality in the construct of "successful aging" and mental health has been emphasized in recent years (Crowther, Parker, Achnebaum, Larimore, & Koenig, 2002). A few studies using biomarkers have supported an association between spirituality and successful health-related outcomes (Borg, Andree, Sorderstrom, & Farde, 2003; Ironson et al., 2002). An important caveat in studies of spirituality is that its definitions have been inconsistent (Blazer, 2007; Blazer & Meador, 2009). Jason et al. (2001) incorporated harmony and warmth as well as spiritual elements and mysticism in their definition of wisdom; however, the inclusion of spirituality in the definition of wisdom has been an exception rather than a rule. Most researchers have defined and operationalized wisdom in secular rather than spiritual terms (e.g., Ardelt, 2003; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000; Brugman, 2000; Sternberg, 1990; Sternberg & Jordan, 2005; Webster, 2003).
A widely used and accepted method for seeking consensus among experts within a certain topic area is the Delphi technique, developed at the RAND Corporation in the 1950s (Dalkey, 1969). It is based on the principle that forecasts from a structured group of experts are more accurate than those from unstructured groups or individuals. The Delphi method provides a well-defined process for collecting and examining group agreement on a topic. It facilitates anonymity (the participants' identity is not revealed even after the completion of the final report) and also allows geographical spread of the participants at low cost and in a timely manner (Becker & Roberts, 2009). Interactions among the participants are discouraged to avoid the common problems of group dynamics in face-to-face panel discussions including the "bandwagon effect" or "halo effect" (Dalkey). The selected experts answer questionnaires in two or more rounds. After each round, a facilitator distributes controlled feedback in the form of a well-organized summary without naming the specific experts (Dalkey; Hsu & Sanford, 2007). Participants are free to revise their earlier answers in light of the averaged replies of other members of the group. Finally, appropriate statistical analyses are employed to allow for an objective and impartial analysis and summary of the collected data (Hsu & Sanford), while also ensuring that opinions generated by each participant are well represented in the final iteration (Dalkey).
The goal of the present two-phase study was, in Phase 1, to compare experts' Likert-type ratings on a number of items pertaining to the concepts of wisdom, intelligence, and spirituality to determine if and how wisdom was viewed as being distinct from the latter two concepts and, next, in Phase 2, to characterize wisdom further by using specific descriptors derived from Phase 1. We hypothesized that components of wisdom would differ significantly from those of intelligence and spirituality, consistent with the notion that wisdom is a distinct entity.
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